<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<TEI xmlns="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:hal="http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/" xmlns:gml="http://www.opengis.net/gml/3.3/" xmlns:gmlce="http://www.opengis.net/gml/3.3/ce" version="1.1" xsi:schemaLocation="http://www.tei-c.org/ns/1.0 http://api.archives-ouvertes.fr/documents/aofr-sword.xsd">
  <teiHeader>
    <fileDesc>
      <titleStmt>
        <title>HAL TEI export of halshs-04934490</title>
      </titleStmt>
      <publicationStmt>
        <distributor>CCSD</distributor>
        <availability status="restricted">
          <licence target="https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/">CC0 1.0 - Universal</licence>
        </availability>
        <date when="2026-05-04T09:04:03+02:00"/>
      </publicationStmt>
      <sourceDesc>
        <p part="N">HAL API Platform</p>
      </sourceDesc>
    </fileDesc>
  </teiHeader>
  <text>
    <body>
      <listBibl>
        <biblFull>
          <titleStmt>
            <title xml:lang="en">The Making of China and India in the 21st Century: Long-Run Human Capital Accumulation from 1900 to 2020</title>
            <author role="aut">
              <persName>
                <forename type="first">Nitin</forename>
                <surname>Kumar Bharti</surname>
              </persName>
              <idno type="halauthorid">2407522-0</idno>
              <affiliation ref="#struct-300459"/>
              <affiliation ref="#struct-1006727"/>
            </author>
            <author role="aut">
              <persName>
                <forename type="first">Li</forename>
                <surname>Yang</surname>
              </persName>
              <email type="md5">8eb6afcc60fb8a4d18954940be29490e</email>
              <email type="domain">zew.de</email>
              <idno type="idhal" notation="numeric">1503597</idno>
              <idno type="halauthorid" notation="string">2546296-1503597</idno>
              <affiliation ref="#struct-139699"/>
              <affiliation ref="#struct-1006727"/>
            </author>
            <editor role="depositor">
              <persName>
                <forename>Caroline</forename>
                <surname>Bauer</surname>
              </persName>
              <email type="md5">3ea893b770da7b8f7c3a4173e35dd4de</email>
              <email type="domain">psemail.eu</email>
            </editor>
          </titleStmt>
          <editionStmt>
            <edition n="v1" type="current">
              <date type="whenSubmitted">2025-02-07 11:14:48</date>
              <date type="whenWritten">2024-11</date>
              <date type="whenModified">2025-02-14 03:27:30</date>
              <date type="whenReleased">2025-02-13 13:25:25</date>
              <date type="whenProduced">2024-11</date>
              <date type="whenEndEmbargoed">2025-02-07</date>
              <ref type="file" target="https://shs.hal.science/halshs-04934490v1/document">
                <date notBefore="2025-02-07"/>
              </ref>
              <ref type="file" subtype="author" n="1" target="https://shs.hal.science/halshs-04934490v1/file/WorldInequalityLab_WP2024_24_The-Making-of-China-and-India-in-21st-Century_Final.pdf" id="file-4934490-4282071">
                <date notBefore="2025-02-07"/>
              </ref>
            </edition>
            <respStmt>
              <resp>contributor</resp>
              <name key="154354">
                <persName>
                  <forename>Caroline</forename>
                  <surname>Bauer</surname>
                </persName>
                <email type="md5">3ea893b770da7b8f7c3a4173e35dd4de</email>
                <email type="domain">psemail.eu</email>
              </name>
            </respStmt>
          </editionStmt>
          <publicationStmt>
            <distributor>CCSD</distributor>
            <idno type="halId">halshs-04934490</idno>
            <idno type="halUri">https://shs.hal.science/halshs-04934490</idno>
            <idno type="halBibtex">kumarbharti:halshs-04934490</idno>
            <idno type="halRefHtml">2024</idno>
            <idno type="halRef">2024</idno>
            <availability status="restricted">
              <licence target="https://about.hal.science/hal-authorisation-v1/">HAL Authorization<ref corresp="#file-4934490-4282071"/></licence>
            </availability>
          </publicationStmt>
          <seriesStmt>
            <idno type="stamp" n="SHS">Sciences de l'Homme et de la Société</idno>
            <idno type="stamp" n="AO-ECONOMIE">Archives ouvertes de l'Economie</idno>
            <idno type="stamp" n="WIL">World Inequality Lab</idno>
            <idno type="stamp" n="WIL-WP" corresp="WIL">WIL Working Paper</idno>
          </seriesStmt>
          <notesStmt/>
          <sourceDesc>
            <biblStruct>
              <analytic>
                <title xml:lang="en">The Making of China and India in the 21st Century: Long-Run Human Capital Accumulation from 1900 to 2020</title>
                <author role="aut">
                  <persName>
                    <forename type="first">Nitin</forename>
                    <surname>Kumar Bharti</surname>
                  </persName>
                  <idno type="halauthorid">2407522-0</idno>
                  <affiliation ref="#struct-300459"/>
                  <affiliation ref="#struct-1006727"/>
                </author>
                <author role="aut">
                  <persName>
                    <forename type="first">Li</forename>
                    <surname>Yang</surname>
                  </persName>
                  <email type="md5">8eb6afcc60fb8a4d18954940be29490e</email>
                  <email type="domain">zew.de</email>
                  <idno type="idhal" notation="numeric">1503597</idno>
                  <idno type="halauthorid" notation="string">2546296-1503597</idno>
                  <affiliation ref="#struct-139699"/>
                  <affiliation ref="#struct-1006727"/>
                </author>
              </analytic>
              <monogr>
                <idno type="localRef">World Inequality Lab Working Papers n°2024-24</idno>
                <imprint/>
              </monogr>
            </biblStruct>
          </sourceDesc>
          <profileDesc>
            <langUsage>
              <language ident="en">English</language>
            </langUsage>
            <textClass>
              <classCode scheme="jel" n="D.D3.D31">D - Microeconomics/D.D3 - Distribution/D.D3.D31 - Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions</classCode>
              <classCode scheme="jel" n="E.E0.E02">E - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics/E.E0 - General/E.E0.E02 - Institutions and the Macroeconomy</classCode>
              <classCode scheme="jel" n="E.E2.E24">E - Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics/E.E2 - Consumption, Saving, Production, Investment, Labor Markets, and Informal Economy/E.E2.E24 - Employment • Unemployment • Wages • Intergenerational Income Distribution • Aggregate Human Capital • Aggregate Labor Productivity</classCode>
              <classCode scheme="jel" n="H.H5.H52">H - Public Economics/H.H5 - National Government Expenditures and Related Policies/H.H5.H52 - Government Expenditures and Education</classCode>
              <classCode scheme="jel" n="I.I2">I - Health, Education, and Welfare/I.I2 - Education and Research Institutions</classCode>
              <classCode scheme="jel" n="N.N3.N30">N - Economic History/N.N3 - Labor and Consumers, Demography, Education, Health, Welfare, Income, Wealth, Religion, and Philanthropy/N.N3.N30 - General, International, or Comparative</classCode>
              <classCode scheme="halDomain" n="shs.eco">Humanities and Social Sciences/Economics and Finance</classCode>
              <classCode scheme="halTypology" n="UNDEFINED">Preprints, Working Papers, ...</classCode>
              <classCode scheme="halOldTypology" n="UNDEFINED">Preprints, Working Papers, ...</classCode>
              <classCode scheme="halTreeTypology" n="UNDEFINED">Preprints, Working Papers, ...</classCode>
            </textClass>
            <abstract xml:lang="en">
              <p>We construct a novel dataset of human capital accumulation in China and India from 1900 to 2020 by combining historical records and educational reports to analyze the role of education in economic divergence. Three key findings emerge. First, China pursued a bottom-up strategy, first expanding primary education, followed by secondary and tertiary levels. India, in contrast, adopted a top-down approach, gradually expanding its educational system but prioritizing secondary and higher education before primary. Second, China prioritized quantity over quality, whereas India's expansion attempted to balance quality through teachers' emoluments.&lt;p&gt;Third, China's system features more diversified secondary and tertiary education, with a strong emphasis on vocational education and engineering than India. We highlight the role of educational policies in shaping these trajectories. Our findings on differences in the human capital accumulation in India and China have significant economic implications: education inequality (gini) is not only higher in India but also accounts for a larger share of wage inequality in India (25%), compared with less than 12% in China. Despite a larger share of tertiary-educated graduates, India also struggles with high illiteracy, possibly impeding structural transformation by confining many to the low-productivity agricultural sector. In contrast, China's approach created a larger share of primary, secondary, and vocational graduates combined with more tertiary-educated engineers, generating human capital that is more suitable for the manufacturing sector. India's focus on humanities and accounting in tertiary education fueled service sector growth. Overall, our findings illustrate the importance of human capital composition in shaping long-run economic development.&lt;/p&gt;</p>
            </abstract>
          </profileDesc>
        </biblFull>
      </listBibl>
    </body>
    <back>
      <listOrg type="structures">
        <org type="institution" xml:id="struct-300459" status="VALID">
          <idno type="ISNI">0000 0004 1936 8753</idno>
          <idno type="ROR">https://ror.org/0190ak572</idno>
          <orgName>New York University [New York]</orgName>
          <orgName type="acronym">NYU</orgName>
          <desc>
            <address>
              <addrLine>70 Washington Square South, New York, NY 10012</addrLine>
              <country key="US"/>
            </address>
            <ref type="url">http://www.nyu.edu/</ref>
          </desc>
          <listRelation>
            <relation active="#struct-566779" type="direct"/>
          </listRelation>
        </org>
        <org type="institution" xml:id="struct-1006727" status="VALID">
          <orgName>World Inequality Lab</orgName>
          <orgName type="acronym">WIL</orgName>
          <desc>
            <address>
              <addrLine>48 boulevard Jourdan 75014 Paris</addrLine>
              <country key="FR"/>
            </address>
            <ref type="url">https://wid.world/fr/world-inequality-lab-fr/</ref>
          </desc>
        </org>
        <org type="laboratory" xml:id="struct-139699" status="VALID">
          <idno type="IdRef">092291945</idno>
          <idno type="ISNI">0000000404924665</idno>
          <idno type="ROR">https://ror.org/02qnsw591</idno>
          <orgName>Zentrum für Europäische Wirtschaftsforschung (ZEW)</orgName>
          <orgName type="acronym">Centre for European Economic Research (Mannheim, Germany)</orgName>
          <date type="start">1990-01-01</date>
          <desc>
            <address>
              <addrLine>L 7, 1 68161 Mannheim</addrLine>
              <country key="DE"/>
            </address>
            <ref type="url">https://www.zew.de/</ref>
          </desc>
          <listRelation>
            <relation active="#struct-254729" type="direct"/>
          </listRelation>
        </org>
        <org type="regroupinstitution" xml:id="struct-566779" status="VALID">
          <orgName>NYU System</orgName>
          <orgName type="acronym">NYU</orgName>
          <desc>
            <address>
              <country key="US"/>
            </address>
            <ref type="url">http://www.nyu.edu/</ref>
          </desc>
        </org>
        <org type="institution" xml:id="struct-254729" status="VALID">
          <idno type="ROR">https://ror.org/031bsb921</idno>
          <orgName>University of Mannheim = Universität Mannheim</orgName>
          <desc>
            <address>
              <addrLine>Schloss, 68131 Mannheim</addrLine>
              <country key="DE"/>
            </address>
            <ref type="url">https://www.uni-mannheim.de/</ref>
          </desc>
        </org>
      </listOrg>
    </back>
  </text>
</TEI>