The 1981 and 1990 European Values surveys largely supported the thesis of increasing secularisation in Western Europe. Almost all the variables showed a religious decline, which was even deeper among young people, except for beliefs in an afterlife. Peter Berger and Grace Davie have underlined the "European exception" in contrast to the rest of the world. However, the last survey in 1999 revealed significant Christian renewal and the development of religiosity without belonging, especially among young people. In particular, beliefs in an afterlife are spreading. These tendencies vary according to country. Post-socialist Europe shows an even more developed religious renewal, in particular among the young.